INED+7782+Summer+2011

=**np**WELCOME!= Hello Students,

Welcome to our Wikispace page for INED 7782 Applied Linguistics for the summer semester of 2011! We will use this space to create a class glossary for important terms, concepts, and student observations. Each week you will add to our Wikispace page by adding content. By the end of the semester, you will have a course review/summary that you can use as a study guide for the final exam.

=EDUCATIONAL NEWS AND BLOGS=
 * EdWeek Blog by Ravitch
 * Peter McLaren- Dr. McLaren is a professor at UCLA and is a prominent figure in the field of critical pedagogy. His work focuses on issues related to social justice, equity, and civil rights.

=GLOSSARY / TERMS= 21. __Cognates-__ Words in one language that have the same meaning and resemble an other word in another language 22. __Simultaneous bilinguals__- Children who learn more than one language from their childhood 23. __Sequential bilinguals__- Children who learn another language later or in a sequence such as acquire L1 first then L2 24. __Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH__) - when the first language and the target language are similiar, learners should acquire target language structures with ease; where there are differences, learners should have difficulty. 25.__grammatical morphemes__ - units added to words to alter meaning or function words such as ‘the’ or 's' in plurals. 26. cognates are words that look similar and have same meaning in two languages.(ie theatre and theater.) 27. __Pragmatics__- the study of how language is used in context to express things such as directions, politeness, and deference (interpreting sarcasm, the meaning behind the way someone says something in a conversation). 28. __Phonology-__ studying the sounds in a language (ex. the pronunciation/dialect). 29.__Negation__- a negative statement (I don't like to eat tomatoes). 30. __Fossiliztion__-a lack of change in interlanguage pattern, even after extended exposure to or instruction in the target language. 31. __Interlanguage__- A learner's developing second language knowledge. It is very systematic and changes overtime as learner's receive more input. 32. __innatism__-a belief that human beings are born with mental structures designed specifically for language acquisition. 33. __phoneme__ - a psychologically real unit of linguistic sound. 34. __digraphs__ - when two letters are used to represent one sound. 35. __diphthong__ - two sounds blended into one. 36. __allophones__ - surface level variations of a phoneme. 37.__metalinguistic awareness__ - an ability to explain (describe) the interaction between language and written text. 38**.** __Multilingualism__ is the use of multiple languages, either by a community or a particular individual. 39. __Polyglot__ is a person who uses many languages. 40. **Syntactical Errors** 41. __Mode of Language__ - Can be spoken or written; spoken language is the primary mode 42. __Signs__ - words as used to express meanings
 * 1) __linguistics__- the study of how humans use language
 * 2) __descriptive linguistics__- observes what people say with no judgments
 * 3) __prescriptive linguistics__- believes that all speakers must conform to a list of rules
 * 4) __L1__- first language
 * 5) __L2__- second language
 * 6) __Target language__- the language that is being learned
 * 7) __Instrumental Motivation__- language learning for immediate and practical goals
 * 8) __Integrative Motivation-__language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment
 * 9) __Interlocutor:__a participant in conversation
 * 10) __Behaviorism__-- a psychological theory that all learning takes place through the establishment of habits ( or behaviors)
 * 11) __Critical Period Hypothesis__- The proposal that there is a limited period during which language acquisition can occur
 * 12) __Connectionism-__A theory of knowledge ( includes language) as a complex system of units that become interconnected in the mind as they are encountered together
 * 13) __Subtractive bilingualism__- partially or completely losing L1 as L2 is acquired
 * 14) __Grammar__- a set of complicated rules of a language
 * 15) __Prescriptivism__- an approach to grammar where rules are assumed and speakers are expected to know and follow them
 * 16) __Descriptivism-__an approach to grammar that involves the description of rules after observing and testing them in the actual language
 * 17) __Corrective feedback-__explicit or implicit corrections to a language learner that shows the learner that they were using the target language incorrectly
 * 18) __Modified Input-__adapting language so that a language learner can better understand ( ex. simple sentences, speaking slowly, basic vocabulary)
 * 19) __Auditory Discrimination-__to ability to distinguish between language sounds
 * 20) __Immersion programs__- an education program where the L2 is taught using content-based instruction in the target language

__**Relevant Linguistics, Justice, Chapter 2 Notes & Vocabulary**__
1. __Whole Language-__students would naturally acquire the ability to read by being exposed to "quality" literature. 2. __Phonics-__ where students are encouraged to sound out words as they read them. 3. __Orthography-__ a set of written symbols used to represent language by matching the symbols with the sounds they represent. __Mutual Intelligibility__ - The ability for speakers from different regions and dialects to understand one another in the same language; best achieved through written language. 4. __Phoneme-__ psychologically real unit of linguistic sound that is recognized by a native speaker Morpheme- minimal grammatical units that are the smallest units with meaning syntax- The order words are formed in a sentence 5. __Articulatory Features-__ how and where the phoneme is produced in the vocal tract. __Consonants__ - sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air as it passes through the vocal tract __Place of Articulation__ - where the flow of air is obstructed in order to form different consonants 6. __Bilabial-__ sounds that are created by obstructing both lips. ex. /p/ in **p**ill 7. __Labiodental-__ sounds created by obstructing the lower lip and upper teeth. ex. /f/ in **f**ill 8. __Interdental-__ sounds created by placing the tongue in between the teeth and obstructing air. ex. /θ/ in **th**ink 9. __Digraphs-__ sounds created with two letters and are used to represent one single sound. ex. sh, ch and th 10. __Alveolar-__ sounds created by placing tongue up near the roof of the mouth behind the upper teeth. ex. /s/ 11. __Palatal-__ sounds created by placing tongue to the hard palate of the mouth behind the alveolar ridge. ex. /š/ or "sh" 12. __Simplification__- when elements of a sentence are left out or where all verbs have the same form regardless of person, number, or tense 13. __Transfer/ Inference Errors__- when a learned makes a grammatical mistake because he or she might be applying the rules/ word order of his or her native language 14. __Obligatory contexts-__ a place in a sentence where a particular grammatical form is required for the sentence to be correct ( i.e. the phrase "last week" implied the verb in the sentence needs to be in the past tense) 15. __Accuracy order__- relative accuracy of grammatical forms in learner language, same as developmental sequence 16. __Communicative competence__- the ability to use the language correctly in a variety of settings with correct morphology, syntax, vocabulary, pragmatics, and pronunciation 17. __Observation schemes__- researchers anticipate the occurrence of particular events and behaviors and take note of them within pre-framed frameworks/ checklists 18. __Classroom ethnography__- requires observers to describe what happens in a classroom while trying not to limit themselves to certain pre-determined categories or expectations 19. __Genuine question__- a question in which the "asker" does not know the answer to the question he or she is asking, he/ she is genuinely looking for the answer 20. __Display question__- a question in which the "asker" already knows the answer, but he/ she asks the question so that the learner can display his/ her knowledge of a topic 21. __Uptake__- how quickly students respond to feedback 22. __Action research__- research conducted by teachers in their own classrooms, often local and specific to his or her classroom ( seems more informal) 23. __Experimental studies__- research designed to test a hypothesis ( very structured with "experiment" and "control" groups) 24. __Interlanguage__- The way the learner develops second language knoweldge. They are very systematic languages but are constantly changing as the students learn more about the second language. They are able to revise their ideas about the language over time. 25. __Fricative__- Consonant phoneme created by partial obstruction of air in a steady stream through a narrow opening in the vocal tract (think fricative as friction) examples, /f/ as in fit, /h/ as in hit. 26. __Stop__- Consonant phoneme created by complete obstruction of air flow through the vocal tract. Like the /p/ in pin. 27. __Liquid__- Consonant phoneme created by curling of the tongue with minimal obstruction of air flow. Like the /r/ in rid. 28. __Nasal__- Consonant phoneme created by redirecting the air flow through the nasal cavity instead of the mouth. Like the /n/ in been and the /m/ in seem. 29. __Voicing__- Whether sounds that you produced cause your vocal cords to vibrate or not 30. __Voice Consonants__- Sounds that are produced with vibration in the vocal cords 31. __Voiceless Consonants__- Sounds that are produced without vibration in the vocal cords 32. __Velar__- Sounds that are formed by obstructing the flow of air by touching our toungue to the velum ex. /g/ in "get 33. height- where the tongue is in the mouth when certain English vowels are produced. 34. __high vowels__- /i/ m__**ee**__t: The sound is produced when your tongue is high in your mouth. 35. __low vowels-__ /ae/ m__**a**__t: Sound is produced with the tongue low in the mouth, your jaw drops lower when you say words with this type of vowel than when you say a word with a high vowel. 36. __Mid Vowel__- /e/ m__**a**__te: Sound is produced when your tongue is lower in your mouth than a high vowel but higher than a low vowel. Your jaw drops somewhere in between a high and low vowel when producing a mid vowel sound. 37. Mutual intelligibility- when a language can be understood in different regions ( some differences might occur, but written language is the same) 38. A constant written language allows for permanency of written documents. 39. Velar sounds- sounds formed by touching tongue to the velum 40. Glottal phoneme- sounds formed without using the tongue at all ( only in the /h/ sound as in "hot") 41. Affrictaves- sounds that are a combination of a stop and a fricative 42. __Phonetics__ - study of the sounds of a language 43. __Place of Articulation__ - tells which parts of the speech mechanism are used to produce a phoneme by obstructing air flow, //where// the sound is produced. 44. __Manner of Articulation__- meaning //how// the sound is actually produced like stops, glides, frictatives, affricates, liquid and nasal that all describe how much air is being obstructed.

tongue is high in mouth, jaw is high || tongue is not high or low in mouth, jaw is slightly dropped || tongue is low in mouth, jaw drops low || 37. __Manner of articulation__-how the sound is produced. 38. __Glides__- A type of consonant phoneme with very little obstruction of air.There is gliding movement of the lips or tongue during articulation. Examples: /w/ in "west" and /y/ in "yes." 39. __Sonorant__- A type of consonant phoneme with little obstruction of air when passing through the vocal tract (nasals, liquids, glides). Sonorants are usually placed at the bottom of phoneme charts as their sounds are different from a majority of consonant sounds. 40. __Natural classes__ - a set of sounds of a language that share at least one common feature. =__**CONCEPTS**__= Why is English spelling the way it is? A. Spoken language varies over time and space, but written language is constant and resistant to change. B. English has been influenced by other languages. Phonemes are the smallest unit of language.
 * =High Vowel= || /i/ (m**__ee__**t)
 * =Mid Vowel= || /e/ (m__**a**__te)
 * =Low Vowel= || /ae/ (m**__a__**t)

__**Phonology: The Sound System of English, Justice, Chapter 3 Notes & Vocabulary**__
1. __Natural Class__-a set of sounds of a language that share at least one common feature. 2. __Phonology__-study of sounds that, when put together, produce comprehensible speech 3.__Levels of Representation__- different sounds at two different levels (underlying and surface) 4. __Underlying Level__-sound that cannot be heard/observed (phonemes) 5. __Surface Level__- sound that can be heard/observed; we produce it in our minds and it becomes a physical reality (allophones) 6. __Palatalization__- a movement of the place of articulation of a sound towards the palate. 7. __Phonological analysis__-determine the rules that govern how phonemes are produced at the surface level by investigating the environment in which each allophone is produced. 8.__Phonemic__- a single letter is used to represent a single phoneme 9.__Contrastive Sounds__- This represents a native speaker of the language in which the sounds are used recognizes them as being 2 different sounds and if this is the case,then the sounds must be different phonemes in that language 10. __Minimal Pair__ - two words with different meanings that differ by one phoneme, can be used to prove two sounds are contrastive. example, 'bike' and 'like' Phonological Rules: a) determine the relationship between the sounds being focused on in the analysis, b) prove contrast by looking for a minimal pair, and c) generalize by looking for natural classes. The environment of a sound has two factors, the position and surrounding sounds. The position involves the word initial (beginning of word), word internal (middle of word), and word final (end of word). The surrounding sound involves the preceding sound (before sound) and following sound (after sound). 11. __Aspiration__-a puff of air accompanies the production of the sound. 12. __Phonology__ is **systematic**, rules govern the way in which we use phonemes. 13. __Assimilation Rules__ lead to easier articulation by making a sound more like a surrounding sound. 14. __Phonotactics__-study of parts of the syllable and the restrictions that languages place on the structure syllables can take. 15. __Allophoric Variation__-a different surface level form that a phoneme can take. 16. English spelling is not phonetic, but it is somewhat phonemic. A truly phonetic spelling system would include more than 18 surface vowel sounds...with this many vowels alone, a truly phonetic spelling system would be too much for readers and writers to manage. 17. ELLs often have difficulty with unfamiliar syllable structures. 18. Some words can function as both nouns and verbs. Ex. Project: I completed my project. They projected the image onto the screen. Their pronunciations differ based on the placement of syllable stress. 19. It can be difficult to predict the stresses within polysyllabic words. This can pose a challege for ELLs. It can be additionally challenging when various dialects of a language place stress on different syllables of the same word. 20. __Consonant Clusters__-multiple conconants together in the onset or coda of a syllable. 21. ELLs, in their interlanguage, will try to make English consonant features fit the allowable consonant structures in their native languages. 22. The vowel at the core of the syllable is known as the __nucleus__. 23. The __coda__ of the syllable consists of the one or more consonants following the nucleus.

Code Switching- alternating between two or more languages in a single phrase/ sentence Pidgin- a simplified language that develops in some contact situations Creole- develops from a pidgin- but more elaborate and stable Lexical Items- Words ( like dialects, these also might reveal where someone is from) Dialect- a variety of a language spoken by a group of people
 * PBS Article- Do You Speak American?**

__**Morphology: English Word Structure and Formation, Justice, Chapter 4 Notes & Vocabulary**__
This means that from the word, a person can picture the object, action or characteristic. a) Affixing eg. un +happy to form 'unhappy' b) Functional shift eg. changing the verb "excite" to the noun "excitement" by adding the suffix "-ment" c) Semantic shift eg. word 'dove' literally means a bird but has taken figurative meaning "favoring peace' d) Compounding eg. bookstore e) Blending eg. smog is a blend of 'smoke' and 'fog' f) Borrowing eg 'karate' formerly a Japanese word now considered an English word as well g) Acronyming eg. 'scuba' which stands for "self-contained underwater breathing apparatus" h) Root Creation eg. 'kleenex', 'band-aid'. They used to be proper nouns but have come to be used as common nouns.
 * morphology**- study of word formation
 * lexical categories**= **word classes** = **parts of speech** (words are divided into classes based on characteristics)
 * morpheme**- minimal units of meaning in language 'act' 'ive' 'un'
 * free morphemes** - a morpheme that can be used alone (as a word itself), such as "act"
 * bound morphemes** - a morpheme that must be attached to another morpheme(s). 'ive' 'un'
 * lexical morpheme** - a morpheme that has a "real world" meaning, also referred to as "content morphemes"
 * grammatical morpheme** - a morpheme that exists primarily to serve some grammatical purpose, either alone or with another morpheme, e.g. "-ize," "un-," "with"
 * root morpheme** - a morpheme onto which other morphemes can be added; note that these can be either free or bound, and thus not all root morphemes are also "root words"
 * affix morpheme** - morphemes that are added to root morphemes (i.e. **prefixes** and **suffixes**)
 * inflectional affixes** - do not create new words. Just change the form of the word slightly to indicate some grammatical meaning. Example of: 'ing' 'ed'
 * derivational affixes** - do create, or derive, new words. Some change content meaning 'un' 're' and some don't change meaning but the part of speech 'ize' 'ly'
 * etymology**-a word's history.
 * linear structure** - formed in a straight line, as in English, from left to right.
 * hierarchial structure**-refers to the levels and is independent of linear structure.
 * Word creation in English**-
 * Suffix**- affixes that are attached after the root (ex. -ed, -ing)
 * Prefix**- affixes that are attached before the root (ex. pre-, re-, un-)
 * Productive affixes:** Affixes that are used in many words eg. "un-" can be affixed to many roots
 * Functional Shift:** also called category extension; using a word in a different category (ex. using impact first as a noun, then later as a functioning verb)
 * Semantic Shift**: the meaning of a word changes; may take on a figurative meaning rather than a literal one (ex. hawk and doves referring to people in the military rather than birds)

Nouns:
 * Countable nouns**- nouns that can be pluralized
 * Uncountable nouns**- nouns that cannot be pluralized ( i.e. advice)
 * Case** - relationship between a noun and some other element in a sentence. It can also be described as the grammatical function of a noun in a sentence. Example: "The oil's odor was unpleasant." ("oil" functions as the possessor of the noun "odor.")
 * Nouns can be inflected for //number// and //case.//**

Verbs:
 * Aspect**- the internal time of an action or state, such as repetition and duration.
 * Verbs can be inflected for //tense, aspect, person// and //number.//**

Adjectives:
 * Comparative**- comparison being made between two entities; usually denoted by "-er"
 * Superlative**- comparison being made between more than two entities; usually denoted by "-est"
 * Adjectives modify nouns and can be inflected for comparison.**

Adverbs:
 * Sentence adverbs**- describes something about an entire sentence
 * Degree adverbs**- indicates the degree or to what extent a noun does a verb
 * Manner adverbs**- tells the manner in which a noun does a verb
 * Adverbs take no inflection and perform multiple modifying functions.**


 * __8 inflectional Morphemes (affixes):__**

8) **present participle aspect** –ing (verb) Ex: Sally is sleep-ing right now.
__**Morphophonology: Where Morphology Meets Phonology, Justice, Chapter 5 Notes & Vocabulary.**__

__**allomorphs**__ (allo=other), this is the idea that a single morpheme can have more than one pronunciation. Example is the '-ed' suffix added to past tense verbs where the underlying morpheme /d/ has 3 surface allomorphs [d] [t] and [ed]. __**Root Allomorphy**__ states that root morphemes have multiple allomorphs. By comparing how it is pronounced alone to how it is used with affixes allows you to observe the use of root allomorphy. Using the "hymn" will help you illustrate and analyze root allomorphy. __**Common Types of Morphophonological Rules**__ __**Assimilation**__: one or more sounds in a morpheme becomes like a neighboring sound -makes it easier topronounce a word __**Insertion**__: a sound is inserted between two morphemes -makes it easier to pronounce a word -makes it easier to hear every sound in a word __**Deletion**__: a sound is deleted from a morpheme -makes it easier to pronounce a word
 * __Morphophonology__** is a combination of morphology (word structure) and phonology (sound systems)
 * Acoustic Features**: Refers to how a sound sounds (ie how they are perceived) eg. hissing is the acoustic feature of [z], [s]
 * Sibillants:** Natural class of sounds that share the acoustic feature of 'hissing'
 * Derivation**:A process of word formation through which affixes are attached to roots and stems to derive new words that have different grammatical functions and/or significantly different meanings

__**English Sentence Structure, Justice, Chapter 6 Notes & Vocabulary.**__
Syntax= the study of sentences and sentence structure. We student syntax so that we can "consciously articulate our unconscious understanding of English." (173)

__Types of Sentences:__ Simple - basic sentence with a subject (noun) and a predicate (verb) Coordinate - sentence with two subjects and two predicates contained in two independent clauses. Normally connected by a conjunction. Complex - sentence with multiple clauses (both independent and dependent). A dependent clause cannot stand alone. Complex-coordinate ( both complex and coordinate) - a sentence with multiple independent and dependent clauses. The two independent clauses could stand alone and will be connected by a conjunction. The dependent or subordinate clauses will support the independent clauses and cannot stand alone. __Word Classes:__ Major/open classes - nouns (Examples: student, linguistics, class, hair), verbs (Examples: disgust, leak, approach), adjectives (Examples: leaky, serious, unlucky, favorite), adverbs (Examples: unfortunately, very, quickly, extremely)

Minor/closed classes: pronouns (Examples: he, she, it), determiners, prepositions, auxiliaries, conjunctions

nouns (N) || __**Closed/Minor**__ pronouns (pro) || Co-Occurrence words are words that can be placed in a similar category of words, even though they do not have the same form definition. For example, "unpleasant" and "happy" Auxiliary Verbs are simply helping verbs, such as, might, should, will, be and have. Auxiliaries help add "meaning" to verbs. Modal- A subcategory of auxiliary verb whose members can be distinguished from other auxiliaries by their inability to be used as verbs. Conjunctions "hook up words and phrases and clauses", as stated by School House Rock. Examples: and, but, or, if, because Subject - A grammatical relation that can be defined by its function as the doer of a verb in a sentence and by its position in the hierarchy of a sentence, directly dominated by the sentence node. (NP) Predicate - The constituent in a sentence, directly dominated by the sentence node, that makes a statement about the subject. (VP) "tells us something as the noun proceeds" "a" is a indefinite article "the" is a definite article Contrastive Rhetoric-The study of how a person's first language and culture influence his/her writing in a second language i) taking the direct object of the verb in the active sentence and placing it in the grammatical subject position ii)a form of the auxiliary verb 'to be' is inserted and the past participle inflected form of the main verb is used iii) the subject of the active sentence is moved to the end of the passive sentence, in the predicate, embedded in a by 'PP' eg. **Active sentence:** __The man at the bar__ requested __a drink with no ice.__
 * __**Open/Major**__
 * verbs (V) || determiners (det) ||
 * adjectives (adj) || prepositions (P) ||
 * adverbs (adv) || auxiliaries (aux) ||
 * || Conjunctions (C) ||
 * NP -** noun phrase
 * VP** - verb phrase
 * Determiners**: used to determine a noun. They make clear //which// noun or //how many// nouns are being talked about. For example, in the sentence, "A girl in my cohort went to the restaurant," the determiners are //A//, //my//, and //the//. They determine the nouns, //girl, cohort, and restaurant.//
 * Types of Determiners:**
 * articles**- lexical subcategory that identifies a noun
 * qualifiers**- determine the quantity of the nouns they modify (there, several)
 * demonstratives-** determine the point to the noun they modify (this, that)
 * pronominal determiner-** determine the possession of the noun by some other entity (my, your)
 * Clause**: a group of words containing both a subject and a verb that work together to convey meaning
 * Adjectives** are **predicative** when they occur after a verb but not together with a noun, ex: "My favorite player is __hungry__." They are **attributive** when used with a noun, ex: "My __favorite__ player is hungry."
 * Passive sentence: is formed by**,
 * Passive sentence**: __A drink with no ice__ was requested by __the man at the bar.__
 * Theory of Transformations:** grammatical sentences may violate the phrase structures at one level, but at another level they actually //do// follow the phrase structure rules.
 * Canonical sentences**: Sentences that do follow the regular rules of structcure
 * Non-cannonical sentences:** Sentences that do not follow the regular rules of structure
 * Interrogative pronoun:** Used in interrogative sentences; ex: what
 * Pro forms:** all words that substitute for larger constituents
 * Adverbs**: Sentence adverbs-adverbs like "unfortunately" which modify entire sentences. Manner adverbs-like "quickly", modify verbs because they describe the manner in which a verb is "done". Degree adverbs-like "extremely", modify adjectives and other adverbs.
 * Constituents**: Sentences are made up of these. THey can be thought of as a group of "chunk" of words the belong together as a unit.

__**English Dialects, Justice, Chapter 7 Notes & Vocabulary.**__

Language variation- how language varies by groups of different peoples Standard American English - "newscaster English" that is considered to be approriate for business and school. This is considered to be a standard nonstigmatized dialect. Bidialectal - Regardless of a student's first dialect, as teachers we want them to work with the standard dialect, and so our goal is to help them become bidealectal, or one who speaks two dialects. Dialect - language variation within one single language.

__Levels of Language Variation:__ 1. lexical level: How culture determines **word choice**. An object can have more and one word to describe it. example: Mum (British) vs. Mom, y'all vs. you all. 2. phonemic level: Location determines the use of sounds. Example; your mother's sister= **"Aunt" vs "Ant"**, Shoot the "**Ball vs Baull"** 3. phonological level: different phonological rules that different linguistic varieties have. 4. morphological level: focus on word structure, not word choice. Using the same word, but forming that word differently. Example: "proved" and "proven" 5. syntactic level: The idea of looking at larger units of speech ( phrases and clauses) from different contituents.

Examples: __**AAE**__ (Kaes) cast (tol) told (des) desk (fax) facts (gifs) gifts AAE equals AAVE
 * Linguistic Relativism**- Culture and language influence and shape how we perceive the world
 * Mutual Intelligibility** is a relationship between languages, when speakers of different but related languages are able to understand each other without studying or without putting forth an abundance of effort.
 * Monophthongization:** this is one phonological area where SAE and AAE differs in allophonic variation of diphthongs. It is when two vowel sounds blend into one, which creates on sound called monophthongs.
 * Consonant Cluster Reduction:** this is common in AAE speakers. it is known as the process of reducing consonant clusters in order to make it easier for the student to articulate a word.
 * Standard dialect-**is the one that is appropriate in formal contexts, the one that will not make a negative impression in educated circles.
 * Non-Standard dialect-**any dialect that is not the standard dialect, such as SAE in U.S., and is therefore highly stigmatized.
 * African American English (AAE)**: a highly stigmatized dialect of English; there is a significant amount of variation among different varieties of it.

AAVE= African American Vernacular English = Ebonics
 * Inflectional morpheme deletion-**AAE's drop the possessive morpheme and the third person singular morpheme.
 * "be" deletion-**AAE's deletion of forms of the verb "to be" in certain environments. For example, California is a big state. AAE's might say: California a big state.


 * Standard American English (SAE)**-the standard dialect in the U.S.
 * Bidialectal-** the ability to speak two dialects. Need to teach students standard dialect regardless of first dialect resulting in students becoming bidialectal.

1. Lexical Level-deals with word choice, using different words for the same meaning 2. Phonological Level-deals with the use of sounds and phonological rules 3. Morphological Level-deals with word structure and different processes of word formation 4. Syntactic Level-deals with larger linguistic units and how speakers form phrases. 1. Dimension of time-language varies over time periods 2. Dimension of space-language varies based on geographic area 3. Dimension of group-language varies depending on gender and socioeconomic status
 * __Levels of Language Variation__:**
 * __Dimensions of Language Variation__:**

Linguistic rules we follow are specific to the context in which we use language. Example: "ain't" is appropriate in conversation with a friend, however, it is not appropriate in an interview or on the job.
 * Correctness vs. Appropriateness**

=**CONCEPTS**=
 * 1) **Krashen's 5 Hypotheses**- acquisition-learning hypothesis, monitor hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, input hypothesis, and affective filter hypothesis
 * 2) **acquisition-learning hypothesis**: //acquisition// is subconscious, based on interaction & observation, and is acquiring the language itself; //learning//is formal, conscious, "about" the language (e.g. rules of grammar), and less important than acquisition.
 * 3) **monitor hypothesis:**the learning system "monitors" the acquisition system, planning, editing, and correcting it when the learner (a) has time to think, (b) focuses on the form of the language, and (c) knows the rule in order to apply it.
 * 4) **natural order hypothesis**: the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a "natural order" that is predictable, but not absolute.
 * 5) **input hypothesis**: the learner acquires new language if the input received is just above the current level (similar to the ZPD). This input level is referred to as i +1.
 * 6) **affective filter hypothesis:** a number of "affective" variables play a role in language acquisition: motivation, self-confidence, anxiety; when these traits keep the filter low, it allows better language acquisition.
 * 7) BICS vs. CALP -Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) are day-to-day language skills that are needed in social interaction. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) is a formal academic language which are related to subject area content material (Jim Cummins)
 * 8) CUP -Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) refers to skills, ideas, and concepts students learn from their first language and transfer that knowledge into their second language (Jim Cummins)
 * 9) Context reduced vs. Context embedded -Context Reduced refers to classroom language where highly specialized language is required whereas Context Embedded refers to social interaction language where specialized language is not required (Jim Cummins)
 * 10) ZPD - Zone of Proximal Development: (Vygotsky-learner can perform at a higher level with support- scaffolding)
 * 11) Multiple Intelligences- (Howard Gardner-individuals may hold multiple strengths including- interpersonal, intra-personal, bodily-kinesthetic, visual, musical, linguistic and many more)
 * 12) Zoltán **Dörnyei**'s process-oriented model of motivation (Lightbown, p. 64):
 * 13) **choice motivation**: getting started, setting goals
 * 14) **executive motivation**: carrying out the tasks necessary to maintain motivation
 * 15) **motivation retrospection**: reflection upon performance
 * 16) Chomsky believes that all human beings are equipped with a Language Acquistion device (LAD) which enables a learner to acquire language.
 * 17) Learners will sometimes avoid using certain features of a language that the think will be too difficult- studied by Jacquelyn Schachter in 1974
 * 18) 6 Proposals for Classroom Teaching
 * 19) Get is right from the beginning: very structured, students learn language rules early on, repetition is often used, helps students better to read the language rather than use it conversationally
 * 20) Just listen ... and read: Learners need to be exposed to the language through reading and listening
 * 21) Let's talk: Emphasizes the importance of both comprehensible input and conversational interactions
 * 22) Two for one: Content- based instruction, immersion programs
 * 23) Teach what is teachable: some features of the language can be taught successfully at various points in the learner's development while others develop according to the learner's internal schedule
 * 24) Get it right in the end: focus is on eventually leading learners to changes in their interlanguage systems, not jut appearance of change; combination of other 5 approaches

11. innatist perspective: Universal Grammar- Related to Chomsky's theory that every language has a common set of principals. The child has a critical period to learn a language. 12. Six Types of Feedback to Student Errors (Lightbown & Spada, p. 126-127):
 * 1) **explicit correction**- e.g., "You mean to say..."
 * 2) **recasts**- the teacher restates the student's sentence with correction inserted (this was the most common type of feedback the teachers gave in the study).
 * 3) **clarification requests**- Teacher asks, "What did you say?"
 * 4) **metalinguistic feedback**- the teacher asks the student to find his own error, e.g., "How do we use the past tense?"
 * 5) **elicitation**- prompting student to give a particular response
 * 6) **repetition** - the teacher repeats the student's incorrect sentence as a question, prompting the student to restate it

=STUDENT OBSERVATIONS= 1."...an increase in error may be an indication of progress.” (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 77) 2.  “It is widely believed that the degree of difference between the learner's-native language and the target language can lead to greater difficulty.” (Lightbown & Spada,2006, p. 105) 3. "Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill."  Stephen Krashen 4. "Most child learners are willing to try to use the language---even when their proficiency is quite limited. Many adults and adolescents find if stressful when they are unable to express themselves clearly and correctly." (Lightbrown and Spada, 2006, p. 31) 5. "The acquisition and maintenance of more than one language can open doors to many personal, social, and economic opportunities." ( Lightbrown and Spada, 2006, p. 24) 6. "...it is often difficult to determine the source of errors." (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 82 7. "......English spelling is not phonetic; that is we cannot necessarily predict how a word is spelled based on its sounds, not can we predict exactly how a word is pronounced by looking at its spelling." (Justice, 2004, p. 142) 8. The past tense and the plural-"These are rules that all English language learners must face early in their quest to master the language, and their task is much more manageable if they have an instructor who understand the rules." (Justice 2004, p. 142) 9. "Rather than being, as many people believe, a “broken” way of speaking, used by people who don’t know either language well, a number of studies have shown that code-switching is more likely to be done by people who are highly fluent in both languages" (Do You Speak American? http://www.pbs.org/speak/speech/reveal/) 10. "Bidialectal people, like bilingual people, have a tremendous advantage over monodialectal people because they can comfortably move about in different contexts, switching back and forth between dialects, depending on what the situation calls for." (Justice, 2004, p. 263)

OTHER: When teacher AAVE speakers who struggle with reading, teachers to to make the students feel comfortable. However I also think that students need to also be aware of when to use "Ebonics" and when to use correct/standard English.